Watching the embezzler: An experiment on gender and antisocial behavior
The presence of images of real human eyes or fictitious compositions of them may affect human behaviour (Bateson et al., 2006; Oda et al., 2011). This is called the ‘watching eyes effect’, which according to Dear et al. (2019): “suggests that just feeling watched may be enough to make us modify our actions independent of deliberative, explicit, conscious, evaluation of the costs and benefits of an action.(p.269)”. The evidence goes further, since it seems that not only does it promote prosocial actions, but also curbs antisocial behaviour. In this respect, Kobis et al. (2019) find that the presence of an observer reduces unethical behaviour. Nonetheless, the same authors state that just the presence of the observer is not enough to influence decision making, but that the observer has to be actually looking at the subject. In this line, Manesi et al. (2016) find differences on prosocial actions between a watching eyes condition and a treatment in which the eyes are not watching (closed or averted). Therefore, if the observing eyes are not paying attention or truly ‘watching’ the subject, their presence is not effective.
In this study, we test for the importance of watching eyes in reducing antisocial behaviour. We design an experiment in which participants play the embezzlement game (EG henceforth), with images with a direct gaze, focused to the camera, seeking for higher realism through moving images (GIF).
In the EG the decision maker gets an amount of money, and decides how much to keep and how much to give to the ‘other’. Moreover, the person deciding over the amount at stake is just an intermediary between the people giving that money and their beneficiaries. Hence, the role of the intermediary is to transfer the corresponding amount, and any money the intermediary keeps is embezzled.
Previous studies using the EG conclude that an important share of subjects consistently decide to embezzle (Attanasi et al., 2019: 46.75%), and the amount embezzled represents a great proportion of the amount at stake (64.8% on average through conditions in Di Falco et al., 2020).
Embezzlement occurs, but we speculate that the implementation of watching eyes may reduce the existing levels of it. The specific context examined here is charitable giving. In this respect, embezzlement has been observed in some NGOs. For instance, the International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies (IFRC) reported in 2016 fraud of more than $3 million in Ebola operations in Guinea and Sierra Leone (The International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies, 2016). The experiment presented here aims at analysing the effect of being observed over the embezzlement of donations for charitable giving and to check whether sex may play a role.
Our data reveal taht such differences exist. çWe find that men embezzle significantly more than women. Furthermore, men (women) embezzle less when they face a woman (man). Policy makers should take these characteristics into account when using visual tools on public places trying to reduce antisocial behaviour.
In this study, we test for the importance of watching eyes in reducing antisocial behaviour. We design an experiment in which participants play the embezzlement game (EG henceforth), with images with a direct gaze, focused to the camera, seeking for higher realism through moving images (GIF).
In the EG the decision maker gets an amount of money, and decides how much to keep and how much to give to the ‘other’. Moreover, the person deciding over the amount at stake is just an intermediary between the people giving that money and their beneficiaries. Hence, the role of the intermediary is to transfer the corresponding amount, and any money the intermediary keeps is embezzled.
Previous studies using the EG conclude that an important share of subjects consistently decide to embezzle (Attanasi et al., 2019: 46.75%), and the amount embezzled represents a great proportion of the amount at stake (64.8% on average through conditions in Di Falco et al., 2020).
Embezzlement occurs, but we speculate that the implementation of watching eyes may reduce the existing levels of it. The specific context examined here is charitable giving. In this respect, embezzlement has been observed in some NGOs. For instance, the International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies (IFRC) reported in 2016 fraud of more than $3 million in Ebola operations in Guinea and Sierra Leone (The International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies, 2016). The experiment presented here aims at analysing the effect of being observed over the embezzlement of donations for charitable giving and to check whether sex may play a role.
Our data reveal taht such differences exist. çWe find that men embezzle significantly more than women. Furthermore, men (women) embezzle less when they face a woman (man). Policy makers should take these characteristics into account when using visual tools on public places trying to reduce antisocial behaviour.